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  • The NVC response in the diseased or aging

    2021-09-17

    The NVC response in the diseased or aging Quinidine may be altered, including changes in both the chemical mediators of NVC, ion channel behaviour, and the dynamics of the vascular system. For example, in Alzheimer’s disease the production of NO is shown to be inhibited (Lourenço et al., 2014), hypertension and diabetes can alter SMC ion channels (Iadecola, 2004), and aging results in reduced vascular elasticity and hence limited vasoconstriction/dilation (D’Esposito et al., 2003). The presented model provides a comprehensive and experimentally validated test bed for a variety of neurological pathologies; in particular the 2D tissue slice allows for the simulation of spatial phenomena such as CSD (as shown in this paper) and others such as long term potentiation (LTP) which is a strengthening of synapses based on patterns of activity (Grover et al., 2009). In addition, tissue slices of increased size can be simulated in order to model significant portions of the cortex.
    Disclosure/conflict of interest
    Acknowledgements
    Introduction Even though manganese (Mn) is required as an essential trace element for humans, more public health concerns are focused on the adverse health impacts upon manganese exposure. Specifically, a kind of movement disorder, referred to as manganism is contributed to high levels manganese exposure (Barbeau, 1983). To date, Mn is reported to cause neurons as well as many other types of cell impairments(Roth Jerome and Michelle, 2013). Astrocytes are the most abundant cell type within the central nervous system (CNS) and are essential for normal neuronal activity, including nutrient delivery, neurotransmitter synthesis, ion buffering and response to toxin stimulation (Aschner et al., 2007; Chen et al., 2006). Histopathological results showed gliosis in the substantia nigra, the globus pallidus and the striatum in manganese exposed animals (Pal et al., 1999). Cultured astrocytes are highly susceptible to manganese toxicity and show a greater capacity to accumulate Mn than neurons (Aschner et al., 2007; Aschner et al., 2009). Consequently, astrocyte apoptotic death is induced by manganese accumulation (Evren et al., 2015; Deng et al., 2011). Glutamate (Glu) excitotoxicity has been proposed as a major mechanism for manganism characterized by excessive glutamate released from astrocytes after manganese treatment (Karki et al., 2014; Sidoryk-Wegrzynowicz et al., 2010). Glutamate is released from neurons, then transported to astrocytes, where it is converted to glutamine by glia-specific glutamine synthetase (GS) and reconverted to glutamate by phosphate-activated glutaminase (PAG). Glutamine is released to the synapse cleft and taken into neurons, serving as a precursor for glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). The excitotoxicity mechanisms of glutamate are mainly due to hyperactivation of glutamate receptors (primarily NMDARs) following overload of free Ca2+ and overactivation of the Ca2+-dependent signalling pathway, which eventually causes neuronal death (Hazell, 2007). Mn exposure inhibits NMDA receptor function in an activity-dependent manner (Guilarte and Chen, 2007). However, NMDAR antagonists could not effectively rescue cells from death or ameliorate clinical signs (Arundine and Tymianski, 2004; Muir, 2006), which implied that other mechanisms are involved in glutamate excitotoxicity effects. Astrocytes play a key role in maintaining glutamate-glutamine homeostasis. Astrocytes are tightly coupled to each other or to neurons and oligodendrocytes via gap junctions, which allow electronic or chemical signalling molecules, such as glucose and its metabolites glutamate, glutamine and lactate, to diffuse among cells. The communication via gap junctions between cells, referred to as gap junctional intercellular communication (GJIC), can affect cell growth and viability. Connexin43 is the major gap conjunctional protein in astrocytes and is involved in various cellular functions, including cell growth and differentiation, cell migration, and cell survival/death. The liability of GJIC due to Cx43 knock-out cannot resist ROS–induced impairment (Le et Quinidine al., 2014). The alteration or mutation of Cx43 has been found to be involved in cell apoptosis upon exposure to some neurotoxins. 1-Methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP + ) can induce SH-SY5Y cell apoptosis mediated by Cx43 via the mitochondrial apoptosis pathway. Cx43 forms the primary glutamate release route for astrocytes under adverse environments, according to previous studies (Shan et al., 2014; Jiang et al., 2011). However, the pathogenic mechanisms of gap junctions and the composing protein underlying manganese excitotoxicity have not been reported.